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Deaf or Hard of
Hearing, Attention Deficit Disorder, Muscular Distrophy
DIFFERENTIATED
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS,
For
Students Who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing
http://www.pen.k12.va.us/VDOE/Instruction/Sped/HIstrategiesforteachingmath.pdf
Team members working
with students who are deaf or hard of hearing need to carefully
consider each
student’s unique needs and learning style, as well as the demands of
the task.
Strategies are offered to provide a starting point for thinking about
possible
adaptations. It is important to remember that all team members should
have
input into decisions regarding instructional strategies.
Having a
hearing loss may affect skill development in mathematics
for a number of reasons.
Mathematical
concepts can be learned by
children who are deaf or hard of hearing in the same sequence and
manner as by
their hearing peers (Meadow, 1980). Various factors may prevent
children who
are deaf or hard of hearing from successfully constructing mathematical
knowledge:
• They
may lack
general vocabulary and the basic mathematical vocabulary needed to be
able to
understand math concepts/processes. Hearing children are exposed
to
language from birth and have an understanding of everyday language.
This serves
as a base for developing an understanding and use of mathematical
language. It
is more difficult for children who are deaf or hard of hearing to
acquire
language and learning from their environment incidentally
(from overhearing
conversations of others in their environment, on TV, on the radio).
Without
this incidental learning, a child who is deaf may not develop even
beginning
math concepts such as “in front of/behind” or “heavy/light” without
being
formally taught them.
• Communication
with
other may be difficult. If the child and others in his or her
environment
cannot communicate with each other effectively, they will not be able
to engage
in mathematical processes such as problem-solving, developing logic and
reasoning, and communicating mathematical ideas. Problem-solving is
especially
difficult for children who are deaf as a sound language base is needed
for
putting observations into words or making predictions. Without
communication
skills, the child can be isolated in the learning environment and
unable to
participate in group activities and discovery (Ray, 2001).
• Cognitive
development may be delayed. Research shows that children who are
deaf or
hard of hearing have normal intellectual potential (Meadow, 1980).
However, for
normal cognitive development, particularly in a mathematical sense, a
child
must be introduced to a diversity of mathematical experiences along
with a rich
language base (Ray, 2001). This does not always occur in the home and
in the
educational setting.
Ways to help students
who are deaf or hard of hearing succeed in mathematics
The following
strategies are designed to
promote access to mathematics content based on the Standards of
Learning for
students who are deaf or hard of hearing. It is important to remember
that each
child has unique needs and that decisions regarding instructional
strategies
should be based upon current and accurate information about the child’s
sensory
functioning and on team input.
Instructional
and Environmental Strategies
• Provide an enriched learning environment that
will promote a wide range of meaningful mathematical experiences with
opportunities for exploration and problem-solving.
•
Be sure that there is
someone for the child to interact with in the learning environment who
can
effectively provide not only the vocabulary to label objects but also a
language model for expressing concepts and ideas, using the child’s
mode of
communication..
•
Partner with parents.
Maintain on-going communication between the home and teachers so that
math
vocabulary and concepts are reflected and reinforced in as many
different
situations as possible. Make families aware of the limitless
opportunities in
the home to explore and discuss math concepts during daily routines,
and make
sure that the parents are able to communicate effectively in the
child’s chosen
mode.
•
Make use of multimedia
approaches for visual representation of course content. Overhead
projectors or
powerpoint presentations are preferable to blackboards, as the teacher
does not
need to turn his or her back to the students. This is especially
important for
students who are relying on speechreading, signing, cuing, and/or use
of
residual hearing for receptive communication.
•
More than one mode of
presentation should be used for concepts such as fractions. These may
include
manipulatives, verbal, pictorial, and symbolic modes. Encourage
students to
translate between sign language, English and particularly the language
of
mathematics, and to make connections between all modes presented.
•
Word problems may be
introduced initially as informal stories with math facts through
dramatization,
using an overhead and manipulatives, and then translating the action
into a
math sentence. Use of pictures, drawing sets, and visualizing or
pantomiming
the action in a problem can also be used by students to move from the
concrete
to more abstract representations of the problem.
•
When using visuals,
allow time for the child to view the board, overhead, or objects, then
to watch
explanation/instruction given by the teacher or interpreter, and only
then,
allow students to offer responses. A hearing person can view visuals
and listen
at the same time. Children who are deaf or hard of hearing and rely on
visual
communication through sign language, cued speech, or speechreading must
process
information sequentially rather than simultaneously.
•
Preteach vocabulary
for coming math lessons in context. Collaboration with the
speech/language
pathologist in this effort can be beneficial. Remember, many children
who are
deaf or hard of hearing do not learn words incidentally.
•
For students who sign,
ensure that all involved are consistent in the signs being used.
Conceptually
based signs should be used and inventing new signs for new vocabulary
should be
avoided.
•
Word problems may be
especially difficult for some students who are deaf or hard of hearing
because
of the literacy level needed to comprehend the problem and what is
being asked
of the student. Having the interpreter sign the problem may be an
appropriate
accommodation for some students.
•
Encourage students to
process information at a deeper level through questioning.
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Modification 2
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Working Together: Computers and People With
Mobility Impairments
![[PDF graphic]](http://www.washington.edu/doit/Pic/pdf.gif "http://www.washington.edu/doit/Brochures/PDF/wtmob.pdf")
An elevator or ramp provides access to spaces when a
staircase is insurmountable for someone who uses a wheelchair.
Similarly, specialized hardware and software, called assistive or
adaptive technology, allows people with mobility impairments to use
computers. These tools allow a person with limited, uncontrollable, or
no hand or arm movement to successfully perform in school and job
settings. Adaptive technology can allow a person with a mobility
impairment to use all of the capabilities of a computer.
While some mobility impairments are obvious to the observer,
others are less apparent. For example, individuals with repetitive
stress injuries (RSI) may have no visible impairments yet require
adaptive technology in order to use a computer without experiencing
pain. However, people who use wheelchairs or crutches may require no
special technology to access a computer. Although it may be helpful for
adaptive technology practitioners to know details about specific
disabilities such as Muscular Dystrophy, Cerebral Palsy, spinal cord
injury, Multiple Sclerosis, or RSI, it is not essential to be an expert
on these conditions. People with the same medical condition, such as
Muscular Dystrophy, may require different adaptive technology. On the
other hand, an accommodation for someone with Cerebral Palsy may also
be used by someone with RSI. Also, learning, sensory, or other
disabilities may co-exist with a mobility impairment and can create
additional computer access challenges.
While it is helpful to recognize the specific limitations of
an individual, it is more important to focus on the task to be
completed and how his abilities, perhaps assisted with technology, can
be used to accomplish the goal or task. Work closely with the person
with a mobility impairment to first determine what he needs or desires
to accomplish by using a computer. Specific accommodations can then be
explored that provide access to software or to a specific device such
as a keyboard or mouse.
The specific need for adaptive technology is unique to the
individual. Trial and error may be required to find a set of
appropriate tools and techniques. The person with a mobility impairment
should play a key role in determining her goals and needs when
selecting her adaptive technology. Once basic tools and strategies are
initially selected, she can test drive, discard, adapt, and/or refine.
The end user of the technology should ultimately determine what works
best.
Following are descriptions of several computing tools that
have been effectively used by individuals with mobility impairments.
This list is not exhaustive and should not limit the person with a
mobility impairment or the adaptive technology practitioner from trying
other approaches.
Facility Access
Before a person can use a computer, she needs to get within
effective proximity of the workstation. Aisles, doorways, and building
entrances must be wheelchair accessible. Other resources such as
telephones, restrooms, and reference areas should be accessible as
well. Don't overlook a simple barrier such as a single step or narrow
doorway. Work with architectural accessibility experts to ensure
physical accessibility.
Furniture
Proper seating and positioning is important for anyone using
a computer, perhaps even more so for a person with a mobility
impairment. Specialized computer technology is of little value if a
person cannot physically activate these devices due to inappropriate
positioning. A person for whom this is an issue should consult a
specialist in seating and positioning - often an occupational therapist
- to ensure that correct posture and successful control of devices can
be achieved and maintained.
Flexibility in the positioning of keyboards, computer
screens, and table height is important. As is true for any large group,
people with mobility impairments come in all shapes and sizes. It is
important that keyboards can be positioned at a comfortable height and
monitors can be positioned for easy viewing. An adjustable table can be
cranked higher or lower, either manually or with a power unit, to put
the monitor at a proper height. Adjustable trays can move keyboards up
and down and tilt them for maximum typing efficiency. Be sure to
consider simple solutions to furniture access. For example, wood blocks
can raise the height of a table and a cardboard box can be used to
raise the height of a keyboard on a table.
Keyboard Access
The keyboard can be the biggest obstacle to computing for a
person with a mobility impairment. Fortunately, those who lack the
dexterity or range of motion necessary to operate a standard keyboard
have a wide range of options from which to choose. Pointers can be held
in the mouth or mounted to a hat or headgear and used to press keys on
a standard keyboard. Repositioning the keyboard to the floor can allow
someone to use his feet instead of his hands for typing.
Before purchasing a complex keyboard option, evaluate the
accessibility features that are built-in to current popular operating
systems. For instance, the Accessibility Options control panel in
current versions of Microsoft Windows™ contains a variety of settings
that can make a standard keyboard easier to use. For a person who has a
single point of entry (a single finger or mouth-stick), use of
StickyKeys allows keystrokes that are usually entered simultaneously,
such as Ctrl-key shortcuts found in menus, to be entered sequentially.
FilterKeys can eliminate repeated keystrokes for a person who tends to
keep a key pressed down too long. Check the Settings for these features
and experiment with different time delays for optimum effect. The
Macintosh operating systems have similar features in the Easy Access
control panel.
Consider using the features common in popular word
processors, such as Microsoft Word™, to ease text entry. The
AutoCorrect™ feature of Word allows sentences or blocks of text, such
as an address, to be represented by unique and brief letter sequences.
For example, entering "myaddr" could be set to automatically display
one's address in proper format. Long words can be abbreviated and
entered into the AutoCorrect settings to increase typing speed and
accuracy.
A keyguard is a plastic or metal shield that fits over a
standard keyboard. Holes are drilled into the guard to help an
individual with poor dexterity or hand control press only the desired
key without inadvertently pressing other keys. Keyguards are available
from a variety of manufacturers (e.g., Don Johnston, TechAble).
Alternative keyboards can be considered for a person who
cannot effectively operate a regular keyboard despite changing settings
or using a keyguard. For people who have limited range of motion, a
mini-keyboard (Tash) may be considered. If a person has good range of
motion and poor dexterity, a keyboard with extra-large keys (e.g.,
IntelliTools) can offer a good solution. Several vendors offer an array
of alternative keyboards, including those that are configured to
relieve the effects of RSI (e.g., Infogrip).
When physically activating a keyboard - whether through
changing the settings or switching to an alternative keyboard - is not
possible, evaluate the utility of a virtual keyboard. A virtual
keyboard appears on the computer screen as a picture of a keyboard. A
mouse, trackball, or alternative pointing system activates the keys on
the screen and inserts the appropriate keystrokes into the desired
program. A person can enter text by clicking on specific keys on the
keyboard image. Modifier keys such as Ctrl and Alt
can also be accessed, as can the function keys. Some virtual keyboards
incorporate word prediction (see below) to increase entry speed and may
include alternate layouts in addition to the traditional "QWERTY"
layout found on standard keyboards.
Word Prediction
Word prediction programs prompt the user with a list of
likely word choices based on words previously typed. Some word
prediction software automatically collects new words as they are used
and considers a person's common vocabulary when predicting words in the
future. Although designed to increase typing speed and accuracy, word
prediction in some cases, particularly when short words are involved,
can actually decrease typing speed.
Alternative Pointing Systems
With the advent of graphically-oriented operating systems,
it is vital to have access to a mouse or an alternative pointing
device. For those who lack the coordination to use a standard mouse,
there are many alternatives to consider. Trackballs are a good first
choice; the control surface can be easier to manipulate and the buttons
can be activated without affecting the pointer position. Some
trackballs (e.g., Kensington) offer additional buttons that add
functionality such as double-clicking, click and hold, and other
commands, and can be programmed to a person's specific needs. A simple
accommodation for use of a pointer by someone who can't use his hands
but can move his feet is to place a standard mouse or trackball on the
floor.
Other alternative pointers can be found in many mainstream
computer stores and supply catalogs. External touchpads, similar to
those built into many notebook computers, offer an ideal pointing
system for some. Handheld pointing devices such as the ProPoint™
(Interlink Electronics) with a small control surface area may be useful
for someone with very limited hand mobility. For people with mobility
impairments who already use a joystick to drive a wheelchair, a device
such as the Roller Joystick (Penny & Giles) may be an excellent
choice.
A person with good head control who cannot control a mouse
or alternative pointing device with any limb should consider using a
head-controlled pointing system such as HeadMouse™ (Origin Instruments)
or HeadMaster™ (Prentke Romich). These head-controlled pointing systems
use infrared detection and a transmitter or reflector that is worn on
the user's head and translates head movements into mouse pointer
movement on the computer screen. Use of an additional switch (see
Switch Access below) replaces the mouse button. Combining a head
pointing system with an on-screen keyboard allows full computer control
to someone who cannot use a standard keyboard and mouse.
Switch Keyboard and Mouse Access Using Scanning
or Morse Code
When a person's mobility impairment prevents the use of a
standard keyboard or mouse, using a switch may be a possibility.
Switches come in a nearly limitless array and can be controlled with
nearly any body part. Switches can be activated with a kick, swipe of
the hand, sip and puff by mouth, head movement, eyeblink, or touch.
Even physical closeness can activate a proximity switch. These switches
work in concert with a box or emulator that sends commands for the
keyboard and/or mouse to the computer. While switch input may be slow,
it allows for independent computer use for some people who could not
otherwise access a computer.
There are a variety of input methods that rely on switches.
Scanning and Morse code are two of the most popular. Upon activation of
a switch, scanning will bring up a main menu of options on the screen.
Additional switch activations allow a drilling down of menu items to
the desired keystroke, mouse, or menu action. Morse code is a more
direct method of control than scanning and with practice can be a very
efficient input method. Most learners quickly adapt to using Morse code
and can achieve high entry speeds.
Switch systems should be mounted with the assistance of a
knowledgeable professional, such as an occupational therapist. If
mounted to a wheelchair, it is important that switch mounting does not
interfere with wheelchair controls. Seating and positioning specialists
can also help determine optimum placement for switches, reduce the time
in discovering the best switch system, and maximize positive outcomes.
Speech Recognition
Speech recognition products may provide an appropriate input
tool for individuals with a wide range of disabilities. Speech
recognition software converts words spoken into a microphone into
machine-readable format. The user speaks into the microphone either
with pauses between words (discrete speech) or in a normal talking
manner (continuous speech). The discrete speech system, although
slower, allows the user to identify errors as they occur. In continuous
speech systems, corrections are made after the fact. Speech recognition
technology requires that the user have moderately good reading
comprehension in order to correct the program's text output. Voice and
breath stamina should also be a consideration when evaluating speech
recognition as an input option.
Reading Systems
An individual who has a difficult time holding printed
material or turning pages may benefit from a reading system. These
systems are typically made up of hardware (scanner, computer, monitor,
and sound card), Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software, and a
reading/filing program. The system provides an alternative to reading
printed text. Hard copy text is placed on the scanner where it is
converted into a digital image. The image is then converted to a text
file, making the characters recognizable by the computer. The computer
can then read the words back using a speech synthesizer and
simultaneously present the words on screen. Use of such a system may
require assistance, since a disability that limits manipulation of a
book may also preclude independent use of a scanner.
Low-Tech Tools
Not all assistive technology for people with mobility
impairments is computer-based. The use of such common items as adhesive
Velcro to mount switches or power controls can provide elegantly simple
solutions to computer access barriers. Often, tools of one's own making
provide the most effective and comfortable accommodations for mobility
impairments.
Video
A ten-minute video, Working Together: Computers and
People with Mobility Impairments, demonstrates key points
summarized in this handout. An online version can be freely viewed or
purchased in DVD format at http://www.washington.edu/doit/Video/wt_mobility.html.
Permission is granted to reproduce DO-IT videos for educational,
non-commercial purposes as long as the source is acknowledged. back to top
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